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Storage and handling requirements for the KLOW formulation include refrigerated storage to maintain peptide stability, protection from light to prevent copper complex degradation, appropriate reconstitution procedures to ensure proper dissolution of all components, and sterile handling techniques to prevent contamination

Limitations include mucosal clearance, enzymatic activity in the nasal cavity, and variability in absorption, making it an area of ongoing pharmacokinetic investigation

Instead, it tends to break within the polymeric network

doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2025.1729166 Received 21 October 2025 Revised 01 December 2025 Accepted 17 December 2025 Published 15 January 2026 Volume 13 - 2025 Edited by Ling Wang, Dalian Medical University, China Reviewed by Nicola Alessio, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Italy Yesuf Adem Siraj, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia Updates Copyright 2026 Hu, Li, Hu, Shan, Tang, Jiang, Yi, Chen, Jin, Wang and Wang

Pareto scaling was performed by mean-centering and dividing by the square root of the standard deviation