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NADPH oxidase, activated by hyperglycemia, generates ROS in vascular and immune cells, contributing to endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory signaling [21]

MAMs are essential for the regulation of the neuronal Ca 2+ concentration via the SERCA, the ER channels inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors, the glucose-regulated protein 75, the MCU, and the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) [61]

Copper is an essential trace element that participates as a cofactor in numerous enzymes (including superoxide dismutase, cytochrome c oxidase, and lysyl oxidase) and in regulatory roles where its redox activity and metal-binding properties become biologically consequential

Normal distribution of the data was assessed by examining mean skewness and kurtosis for each group with values 2 or 2 considered reflective of non-normal distribution

Delivers reproducible results